This week covers the United States’ destruction of the last of its chemical weapons stockpile, COVID-19 origin Congressional reporting and hearings, and plenty of new publications, upcoming events, and announcements.
US Destroys Last of Its Chemical Weapons Stockpile
Late last week, the OPCW issued a press release saying “The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) confirms that the last chemical weapon from the stockpiles declared by all States Parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) was verified as destroyed. The last chemical munition of the United States of America’s declared chemical weapons stockpile was irreversibly destroyed in accordance with the CWC on Friday, 7 July 2023 at the Blue Grass Chemical Agent-Destruction Pilot Plant in Kentucky.”
“I congratulate all States Parties, and the United States of America in this instance, on this major achievement for the international community. The end of destruction of all declared chemical weapons stockpiles is an important milestone for the Organisation. It is a critical step towards achieving its mission to permanently eliminate all chemical weapons,” said OPCW Director-General, Ambassador Fernando Arias.
President Biden said in a statement: “For more than 30 years, the United States has worked tirelessly to eliminate our chemical weapons stockpile. Today, I am proud to announce that the United States has safely destroyed the final munition in that stockpile—bringing us one step closer to a world free from the horrors of chemical weapons.”
“Successive administrations have determined that these weapons should never again be developed or deployed, and this accomplishment not only makes good on our long-standing commitment under the Chemical Weapons Convention, it marks the first time an international body has verified destruction of an entire category of declared weapons of mass destruction. I am grateful to the thousands of Americans who gave their time and talents to this noble and challenging mission for more than three decades.”
“Today—as we mark this significant milestone—we must also renew our commitment to forging a future free from chemical weapons. I continue to encourage the remaining nations to join the Chemical Weapons Convention so that the global ban on chemical weapons can reach its fullest potential. Russia and Syria should return to compliance with the Chemical Weapons Convention and admit their undeclared programs, which have been used to commit brazen atrocities and attacks. We will continue to stand with the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons to prevent the stockpiling, production, and use of chemical weapons around the world. And together with our partners, we will not stop until we can finally and forever rid the world of this scourge.”
Select Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Pandemic Releases Interim Reports, Holds Controversial Hearing
The House Select Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Pandemic held a hearing this week titled “Investigating the Proximal Origin of a Cover Up,” alongside the release of an interim majority staff report titled “The Proximal Origin of a Cover-Up: Did the “Bethesda Boys” Downplay a Lab Leak?” The interim report’s executive summary reads:
“On February 16, 2020, Dr. Andrew Rambaut, on behalf of himself and his co-authors, Dr. Kristian Andersen, Dr. W. Tan Lipkin, Dr. Edward Holmes, and Dr. Robert Garry, posted “The Proximal Origin of SARS-Co V-2″ on the website Virological. One month later, on March 17, 2020, ‘The proximal origin of SARS-Co V-2” (Proximal Origin) was published in Nature Medicine. “
“Proximal Origin expressed two primary conclusions: (1) ” … [COVTD-19] is not a laboratory construct or a purposefully manipulated virus,” and (2) “we do not believe that any type of laboratory-based scenario is plausible.”‘
“Since Proximal Origin was published, it has been accessed 5.84 million times. Further, it has garnered the third most attention of any paper of a similar age across all journals and the second most attention of any paper of a similar age in Nature Medicine. Finally, it has received the fifth most attention of any paper ever tracked.”
“This is one of the single most impactful and influential scientific papers in history, and it expressed conclusions that were not based on sound science nor in fact, but instead on assumptions. The question is why.”
“Since April 2020, House Republicans, specifically the Select Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Pandemic (Select Subcommittee) and the Committee on Oversight and Accountability (Committee), have been investigating the origins of the COVID-19 pandemic.”
“This includes investigating whether government officials, particularly Dr. Anthony Fauci or Dr. Francis Collins, exerted any undue influence over Proximal Origin to wrongly downplay the theory that COVID-19 is the result of a laboratory or research related incident”
“As of July 11, 2023, the Select Subcommittee has received more than 8,000 pages of documents from the U.S.-based Proximal Origin contributors and conducted five transcribed interviews-resulting in almost 25 hours of testimony. This report is the culmination of that work.”
“On January 31, 2020, Dr. Fauci “suggested” directly to Dr. Andersen draft a paper regarding a possible lab leak of COVID-19. Dr. Fauci warned that if Dr. Andersen determined COVID-19 was the result of a lab leak, then he would need to contact law enforcement. The next day, February 1, this time on a conference call with 11 international scientists, and included Dr. Collins and Dr. Tabak, Dr. Fauci again suggested drafting a paper regarding a possible lab leak. It was these two suggestions that prompted Dr. Andersen to begin drafting. A draft of what would become Proximal Origin was completed within hours.”
“After publication, Proximal Origin was used to downplay the lab leak hypothesis and call those who believe it may be true conspiracy theorists. Dr. Fauci and Dr. Collins tracked the paper through the review and publication process. And finally, Dr. Collins expressed dismay when Proximal Origin did not successfully kill the lab leak theory. He subsequently asked Dr. Fauci if there was anything more they could do. The next day, Dr. Fauci directly cited Proximal Origin from the White House podium.”
“On January 31, 2020, Dr. Fauci prompted Proximal Origin, which’s goal was to “disproven the lab leak theory to avoid blaming China for the COVID-19 pandemic. Proximal Origin employed fatally flawed science to achieve its goal. And, finally, Dr. Collins and Dr. Fauci used Proximal Origin to attempt to kill the lab leak theory.”
“This is the anatomy of a cover-up.”
At the same time, the select subcommittee’s minority released their own staff report, titled “They Played No Role”…”Select Subcommittee Republicans’ Own Investigation Disproves Allegations That Dr. Fauci and Dr. Collins Suppressed the Lab Leak Theory Through the “Proximal Origins” Paper”. The report explains that “This Democratic Staff Report culminates a review of more than ten thousand pages of documents and transcribed interview testimony provided in response to Select Subcommittee Republicans’ requests to the “Proximal Origin” researchers. This report concludes, based on evidence provided to the Select Subcommittee to date, that there was no cover-up of the origins of the COVID-19 pandemic and no suppression of the lab leak theory on the parts of Dr. Fauci and Dr. Collins.”
It also finds that “Contrary to Select Subcommittee Republicans’ Allegations, Dr. Fauci and Dr. Collins Made No Effort to Suppress the Lab Leak Theory During the February 1, 2020, Conference Call on the Novel Coronavirus’s Origins and Had No Role in Organizing It,” and “Contrary to Select Subcommittee Republicans’ Allegations, Dr. Fauci and Dr. Collins Did Not Seek the Publication of “Proximal Origin” to Suppress the Lab Leak Theory and Had No Role in Leading, Overseeing, or Influencing the Drafting and Publication of the Paper.”
The subsequent hearing was full of energy. The Washington Post documented much of it, writing “Let me categorically say that these allegations are absurd and false,” Kristian Andersen, a Scripps Research scientist and co-author of the paper, testified in prepared remarks. The “conclusions stated in Proximal Origin were based on scientific data and analyses by a team of international scientists with extensive track records in studying virus emergence and evolution,” he said. “None of this work was influenced by Dr. Fauci.”
The Post also highlighted one member of the majority’s quote: ‘“This is not an attack on science. It’s not an attack on peer review,” Rep. Brad Wenstrup (R-Ohio), the chair of the House select subcommittee on the coronavirus pandemic, said in an opening statement at the oft-contentious hearing on Tuesday. “We are examining whether scientific integrity was disregarded in favor of political expediency, maybe to conceal or diminish the government’s relationship with the Wuhan Institute of Virology or perhaps its funding of risky gain-of-function coronavirus research.”’
The saga also ruffled feathers off the Hill, with the same article explaining “The hearing also prompted bitter recriminations from the paper’s authors, who said they have been wrongly and persistently maligned. “This is a black day for science. This is no more than a McCarthy-era show trial,” Edward Holmes, an Australian virologist and co-author of the paper, wrote in an email to The Washington Post. “We’ve experienced 3.5 years of harassment and lies for the apparent ‘crime’ of writing a scientific paper.”’
These ongoing efforts by Congressional Republicans to investigate the work of virologists has many concerned about the long term impacts this will have on scientific research and collaboration, in addition to potential damaging effects on pandemic preparedness and biosecurity.
“THE RED FLAG OF EMERGENCY USE AUTHORIZATION (EUA): Institutional Conflict Resulting in Different COVID-19 Testing Outcomes Comparing the United States and South Korea”
Dr. HyunJung (Henry) Kim, an alumnus of the Biodefense PhD Program, recently published this article in World Affairs. “This article points out that the U.S. EUA revealed limitations in its integration with public health surveillance, laboratory partnerships, and insurance systems, which hampered the rapid expansion of testing capacities during the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic. This is because of the divergent origins of Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) policies between the United States and South Korea. the U.S. EUA’s homeland security objectives were specialized to deal with highly pathogenic biological agents that could be exploited for bioterrorism. On the other hand, the Korean EUA pursues disease containment purposes to strengthen mass-testing practices. Thereafter, once the limitations of the EUA were circumvented, the testing capacity of the United States began to catch up with that of South Korea, and later skyrocketed after solving these issues.”
“Schar School Scholar Warns of Existential Threats to Humanity by Terrorists”
The Schar School recently published this piece about Zachary Kallenborn, a policy fellow at the school whose research focuses on artificial intelligence, drones, and “how terrorists might use these emerging technologies to wipe out humanity”. The article explains “The rapidly circulating peer-reviewed study that has gripped the media describes existential terrorism as the desire to inflict damage of a magnitude so catastrophic that it threatens humanity’s survival. Even if the likelihood of such an event is minor, Kallenborn said it is vital to ask, “What if terrorists wanted to destroy all of humanity—what would that look like?” Most terrorists, he noted, are likely not interested in humanity’s annihilation “because [they] have constituencies and things they want to achieve.” Still, the possibility lingers.” Read more here.
“Future of the Nation’s Laboratory Systems for Health Emergency Response”
“The National Academies Forum on Medical and Public Health Preparedness for Disasters and Emergencies and Forum on Microbial Threats cohosted a two-day public workshop in March 2023 to explore U.S. laboratory and testing responses to past, present, and potential health emergencies (e.g., COVID-19, monkey pox, chemical, radiological or nuclear threats). Speakers addressed the future of laboratory capabilities, capacities, and coordination for national health emergencies response across public and private entities. The workshop culminated with a discussion envisioning the ideal structure, characteristics, components, capabilities, and functions of what could be considered a coordinated national laboratory system, a coordinated system of public and private laboratories, manufacturers, pharmacies, and other entities, that is prepared to respond to future public health threats and emergencies. This Proceedings of a Workshop-in Brief summarizes the discussions held during the workshop.”
“Artificial Intelligence: Possible Risks and Benefits for BWC and CWC”
CBWNet recently released this working paper in which they explain, “Artificial intelligence (AI) is an emerging technology with a dual-use character. Concerns have been raised that some of its applications in life sciences can be misused by nefarious actors for the development of biological and chemical weapons, prohibited by the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), and the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). Areas of AI applications relevant to the BWC and CWC include rational drug design, retrosynthesis planning, and synthetic biology. Research in such areas might also unintentionally produce knowledge, products, or technologies that could be used by others to cause harm.”
“Most of the current limitations in the AI field will likely be overcome in the near future with the emergence of more efficient algorithms and the increasing amount and accessibility of the reported data. The threat landscape is also shaped by the availability of a great number of open-source tools to develop the respective AI-based computational tools “from scratch”. Therefore, a comprehensive legally binding framework is required to regulate AI in the context of biosecurity. The current solutions such as e.g. “Proposal for a Regulation laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence” of the EU (“AI Act”) are not sufficient to adequately address the biosecurity risks posed by some of the AI applications in life sciences. Last but not least, AI itself can play a role in strengthening biosecurity by expediting the development of vaccines and antidotes, introducing and improving detection methods, and supporting the implementation of BWC and CWC.”
“COVID-19: GAO Recommendations Can Help Federal Agencies Better Prepare for Future Public Health Emergencies”
From GAO: “The nation is still recovering from the public health and economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and needs to be ready for future emergencies.”
“In this report, we summarize our newer recommendations in key areas, including public health preparedness and the distribution of federal assistance. We also update our data on COVID-19 funds spent.”
“We’ve regularly reported on the federal government’s $4.7 trillion pandemic response since 2020. As of April 2023, we’ve made 386 recommendations to 26 federal agencies and 19 suggestions to Congress to strengthen response and preparedness. About 45% of those have been fully or partially addressed.”
“A Strategic Challenge: A Peddling Peril Index Analysis of Countries’ Restricted Russia Trade”
David Albright, Sarah Burkhard, and Spencer Faragasso discuss ways to mitigate Russia’s violations of sanctions and export controls in this report for the Institute for Science and International Security. They find, among other things, that “More action is needed to thwart Russia’s illicit acquisition of goods. The mature export control systems in many states provide a sound basis to create more effective tools to act against Russia’s threat to the system of international trade and security. At the same time, these countries can press nations with inadequate transshipment controls to both improve them and participate more actively in thwarting Russia’s illicit trade.”
“Funding Global Health Engagement to Support the Geographic Combatant Commands”
From RAND: “The combined challenges that the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) faces in addressing the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and preparing for a potential conflict with a near-peer adversary have made the need to protect the health and safety of U.S. forces more acute. Global health engagement (GHE) provides an important mechanism to work with allies and partners to develop their medical capacity and medical support capabilities and improve U.S. interoperability with allies and partners to help ensure U.S. force protection and medical readiness. Although the defense community has a broad remit to engage in global health activities with partner nations for the purpose of improving the health and safety of U.S. warfighters, it has not integrated GHE into combatant command operational or security cooperation planning, nor has it provided consistent funding for these activities.”
“In this report, the authors identify the evolving GHE priorities of five of the six geographic combatant commands (GCCs) and the challenges they face supporting combatant command objectives with current sources of funding. They reviewed the relevant GHE instructions and policies and engaged in discussion with more than 75 DoD policy and service leaders and members of the medical community in five GCCs and their service components, as well as members of the policy, legal, and financial communities across DoD. Based on these discussions and a series of follow-up group discussions, they propose several courses of action for providing more-targeted resources to conduct GHE activities in support of GCC objectives.”
“Narratives of the Middle East WMD-Free Zone: Drivers, Themes and Historical Accounts”
From UNIDIR: “The quest to establish a Zone free of nuclear weapons and, subsequently, all weapons of mass destruction in the Middle East has spanned nearly 50 years. While notable progress has been made, a treaty for such a Zone still remains a distant objective.”
“This study chronicles the narratives of key stakeholders – the Arab states, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Israel, the Russian Federation, and the United States of America – who have been closely involved in Zone-related processes since 1974. By distilling insights from these narratives, the study uncovers major drivers and themes that underlie the behaviour of these stakeholders toward the Zone. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive historical account of important Zone-related processes and events from all of these perspectives.”
“The study draws upon information gathered through more than 80 interviews conducted with current and former officials as well as experts from over 20 states and regional and international organizations that have played significant roles in Zone-related processes. It also incorporates primary sources from UNIDIR’s Documents Depository.”
“The insights presented in this study offer a deeper understanding of the experiences and perspectives of contemporary witnesses involved in the ME WMDFZ issue throughout its history. The narratives shed light on how various stakeholders have perceived and interpreted historical events, revealing their diverse motivations, objectives, and perspectives assigned to other stakeholders, emphasizing the complexity and multifaceted nature of the Zone.”
“By identifying differing accounts and uncovering points of convergence, divergence, and misunderstanding about historical events, these narratives identify areas that require further dialogue and cooperation to bridge gaps and foster mutual understanding.”
“Cyber-Biosecurity: How Can India’s Biomedical Institutions Develop Cyber Hygiene?”
Shruti Sharma explains key cyber threats facing India’s biomedical institutions in this piece for Carnegie India, writing “Last year, cyber attacks exposed the increasing vulnerability of India’s biomedical institutions. This article serves as a primer for how such institutions can ensure the cybersecurity of their organizations.”
Release of the 2023 Nuclear Security Index
“Join NTI Co-Chair and CEO Ernest J. Moniz for the release of the 2023 NTI Nuclear Security Index—a comprehensive assessment of nuclear and radiological security across 175 countries and Taiwan.”
“The 2023 NTI Index provides new data-driven insights and recommendations on nuclear security trends at a critical time as nuclear materials and facilities face an array of dangers—from theft and sabotage to powerful storms fueled by climate change, and as made painfully clear over the past year-and-a-half, to global instability and active assaults from countries.”
“The NTI Index, developed by NTI and Economist Impact, uses publicly available information to track progress and recommend actions for governments, regulators, international institutions, industry, and civil society to take to better protect nuclear and radioactive materials and nuclear facilities around the world.”
This event will take place on July 18 at 10 am EDT. Streaming is available through YouTube. Learn more and register here.
Encouraging Congressional Action on Dual-Use Bioscience Research of Concern
“Rapid advances in modern bioscience and biotechnology hold the promise of a future that is more resilient to disease, food insecurity, and environmental instability and that also fosters a thriving U.S. bio-economy. However, these advances may increase the chances of a deliberate or accidental event with national and global consequences. Congress and others must act on dual-use research of concern to ensure a safer future.”
“Join NTI’s Global Biological Policy and Programs (NTI | bio) for the lunchtime event: “Encouraging Congressional action on dual-use bioscience research of concern,” featuring” Dr. Gerald “Gerry” Parker and Dr. Jaime M. Yassif.”
“Drs. Parker and Yassif will discuss issues in emerging bioscience and biotechnology, such as the need to mitigate the risks of dual-use research with dangerous pathogens without stifling innovation, and the biosecurity risks posed by artificial intelligence enabled bio-design tools. NTI | bio Senior Director and former Congressional staffer Dr. Nathan A. Paxton will moderate the discussion. This invitation is transferable.”
This event will take place on July 25 at 12 pm EDT in 2044 Rayburn House Office Building. Register here.
PNNL-The Advancing Threat Agnostic Biodefense Webinar Series: Advances in Functional-Based Assays for Detection of Novel Pathogens
“Functional assays exploit host-pathogen interactions as the basis of pathogen detection and often rely on detecting host responses during infection. Common pathogenic traits assessed may be produced by the pathogen itself (e.g., toxin production) and by the interaction of the pathogen with the host (e.g., cell death). Unlike conventional detection methods that target specific microbial sequences, functional assays are based on pathogen strategies used during the infection process. Platforms for high-throughput functional characterization have been elusive due to the challenge of creating an integrated system for pathogen extraction, interrogation, and assessment. Here, the development of an end-to-end pipeline for discovery of pathogenic features and detection of pathogens in real-world environmental samples will be discussed.”
This event will take place on July 25 at 12 pm PT. Register here.
In-Person Event (July 26): Demystifying Russia’s Tactical Nukes and Raising the West’s Nuclear IQ
“Since the early days of its full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Russia has consistently employed various means of nuclear blackmail in an effort to push Kyiv, and its Western supporters, to the negotiating table. Vladimir Putin and other government officials have not shied away from feigning nuclear strikes in an attempt to manage any escalation on the frontlines. Most recently, Moscow announced that it would station some of its tactical nuclear weapons on Belarusian territory. And while it remains unclear how these nukes might be used and even who will have control over them, these developments have raised considerable alarm in Kyiv and many Western capitals.”
“These concerns are all the more warranted following Russia’s destruction of the Kakhovka dam in southern Ukraine, which has had catastrophic effects for the environment and populations in the surrounding region. This act in turn has effectively compromised the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant (ZNPP), as the water level for the nuclear reactors’ cooling ponds runs dangerously low. Moreover, reports are growing that Russian forces have mined the ZNPP as well as the Crimean Titan chemical plant, potentially in preparation for explosions similar to what transpired with the dam.”
“Given these recent provocations, it is critical for Western policymakers to understand the true probability for the Kremlin to resort to tactical nuclear weapons, as well as what affect they would have on Ukraine and its neighbors. Furthermore, the West must demonstrate a strong resolve to Putin in dissuading the Russian leader from seriously considering such a move. As such, The Jamestown Foundation is proud to host the in-person event “Demystifying Russia’s Tactical Nukes and Raising the West’s Nuclear IQ” on Wednesday, July 26, from 10:00 to 11:30 AM. The event will feature a panel of Russian and nuclear experts consisting of Dr. Phillip A. Petersen, Lt. Col. Jim Gifford, Col. (ret.) Sam Gardiner, Dr. Francesca Giovannini, and Admiral (ret.) Ihor Kabanenko. The panel will be moderated by Lt. Gen. (ret.) Ben Hodges and Jamestown President Glen E. Howard will offer introductory remarks.”
Learn more and register here.
Summer Certificate Course on Combating Transnational Organized Crime and Illicit Trade: A Focus on the Americas
“The University for Peace (UPEACE), the Terrorism, Transnational Crime and Corruption Center (TraCCC) at the George Mason University, and the Anti-Illicit Trade Institute (AITI) are pleased to offer the second edition of the online Summer Certificate Course on Combating Transnational Organized Crime and Illicit Trade: A Focus on the Americas.”
“The course aims to improve students’ comprehension of the dynamics of transnational organized crime, focusing on money laundering, corruption, illicit trade, security, trade zones, state fragility, and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (Agenda 2030). The main objective of the course is to identify how different types of crimes impact the capacity of the state to manage and mitigate internal and external threats. The course will also push participants to think about organized crime from a more nuanced perspective, specifically as an aspect of social conflict, emphasizing that the challenges for promoting peace are embedded in local, regional, and global contexts. Students will receive a certificate upon successful completion of the course.”
Learn more and register here.
Registration for GHS 2024 Now Open
Registration is now open for the Global Health Security 2024 conference in Sydney, Australia. This iteration will take place 18-21 June, 2024. The call for abstracts is also still open. “The mission of the Global Health Security conference is to provide a forum where leaders, researchers, policy-makers, and representatives from government, international organisations, civil society, and private industry from around the world can engage with each other, review the latest research and policy innovations, and agree solutions for making the world safer and healthier. To that end, our mission is to help foster a genuinely multidisciplinary community of practice that is committed to working collaboratively to enhance global health security and eliminate disease, irrespective of its origin or source.”
Call for Experts – Technical Advisory Group on Genomics
Deadline: 16 July 2023
“The World Health Organization (WHO) is seeking experts to serve as members one of the Technical Advisory Group on Genomics. This “Call for experts” provides information about the advisory group in question, the expert profiles being sought, the process to express interest, and the process of selection.”
Read the call here.
Now Hiring: Chief Strategy & Bioeconomic Development Officer
“BioMADE is now hiring a Chief Strategy & Bioeconomic Development Officer (CSBO) to be responsible for creating, communicating, executing, and sustaining BioMADE’s strategic initiatives to advance the U.S. bioeconomy. This leader is responsible for understanding and developing BioMADE’s strategic priorities and affecting positive change across the domestic and global bioindustrial economy. In collaboration with the leadership team, this individual focuses on the long game by driving the development and implementation of strategic plans to ensure that BioMADE activities align with long-term goals.”
Learn more and apply here.
7th Annual Next Generation for Biosecurity Competition Open for Applications
“The seventh annual Next Generation for Biosecurity Competition is now open. NTI | bio, along with the Next Generation for Global Health Security (GHS) Network (NextGen), the iGEM Foundation, 80,000 Hours, SynBio Africa, and the Global Health Security Network (GHSN), hosts this competition to provide a platform for the next generation of global leaders in biosecurity to produce and present original research to the wider biosecurity community.”
“Applicants for the 2023 competition should design a policy proposal that promotes biosecurity-by-design as a way to bolster emerging bioeconomies. Competition judges seek innovative and creative papers focused on safeguarding science and technology development against misuse by promoting responsible innovation in countries with emerging bioeconomies…”
“Winners of the Biosecurity Competition will be awarded the following:
- Online publication of their paper on the NTI website
- The opportunity of travel to, attend, and present during a side event at a prestigious international biosecurity event, such as the Biological Weapons Convention Meeting of States Parties”
Learn more here.
Weekly Trivia Question
You read the Pandora Report every week and now it’s time for you to show off what you know! The first person to send the correct answer to biodefense@gmu.edu will get a shout out in the following issue (first name last initial). Our question this week is: What were 18th century British officers in India and other tropical areas prescribed to prevent malaria infections?
Shout out to Josh W. for correctly answering our trivia question last week! Our question was “The spread of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (commonly known as mad cow disease) to humans is believed to cause what disease?” The answer is variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD), commonly referred to as “human mad cow disease.”
The Pandora Report 