Tag: mosquito

Pandora Report 4.29.2016

by spopescu, posted in Pandora Report

TGIF- We’ve got your weekly dose of biodefense and much more in this edition of the Pandora Report! Kurdish Peshmerga soldiers are saying that recent ISIS attacks have involved chemical weapons. Heads up- you may want to avoid a spiced herbal tea commonly sold at CVS due to a potential contamination with Salmonella. Check out a new study on biodiversity in swine flu and the potential for spillover.  Monday, April 25, 2016 was World Malaria Day! Lastly, here’s a chuckle to help start your weekend.

2016 Survey on U.S. Role in Global Health
A recent survey of Americans performed by the Kaiser Family Foundation addressed the public perception, knowledge, and attitude regarding the role of the U.S. in global health. The survey addressed topics like American awareness of Zika virus and the health issues that are most urgently facing developing countries. The survey found that a “majority of the public wants the U.S. to take either the leading role or a major role in trying to solve international problems generally, as well as in improving health for people in developing countries specifically.” Interestingly, the importance of improving health for developing countries was not ranked as a top priority like protecting human rights, etc. “Seven in ten Americans believe that the current level of U.S. spending on health in developing countries is too little or about right, yet the public is somewhat skeptical about the ability of more spending to lead to progress, with more than half saying that spending more money will not lead to meaningful progress. Republicans and independents are more skeptical than Democrats, and these partisan differences have increased over time. Another notable trend is the decreasing visibility of U.S. efforts to improve health in developing countries; just over a third of the public says they have heard “a lot” or “some” about these efforts in the past 12 months, a decrease of 21 percentage points since 2010.” The survey also found that while Americans believe the U.S. should help women in Zika-affected countries, there was a divide regarding involvement in their family planning and preventative health measures.

GMU Biodefense Alum Awarded Mirzayan Science & Technology Fellowship
Congrats to GMU Biodefense alum, Dr. David Bolduc, on being named a Christine Mirzayan Science and Technology Policy Graduate Fellow! David graduated from GMU with a PhD in Biodefense in 2011 and doctoral work focused on the threats and mechanisms of chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) agents and CBRN proliferation issues such as treaties, histories and the managing of related mass casualty incidences. David is currently a Principal Investigator at the Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute. The Mirzayan Fellowship is a very prestigious award – as a program of the National Academies, it is designed to provide mentorship and professional development opportunities to early-career leaders in the field of science and technology policymaking.

Global Health & Military Expenditure 2013_numbers_subregions_2
Last week we discussed the financing of global health versus military.  There was a recent publication by Sipri (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute) that looked at global military expenditure versus health expenditure (in 2015, it was $1676 billion or about 2.3% of the world’s Gross Domestic Product). They utilized the WHO’s recent estimates of government health expenditure as a share of GDP. They reviewed 2013 data and found that “governments worldwide spent just over two and a half times as much on health than on the military in 2013: 5.9% of global GDP went to public health spending, compared with 2.3% for the military.” Here’s the interesting part – it varied regionally. While the U.S. spends a lot on military, healthcare expenditure is still very high. Western and Central Europe spent 7.8% of their GDP on health and 1.5% on military. The Middle East spent 4.6% of their GDP on military versus 3.0% on health expenditures. The study also looks at reallocation of military spending and what that may translate to regarding the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). “Reallocating only around 10% of world military spending would thus be enough to achieve major progress on some key SDGs, supposing that such funds could be effectively channelled towards these goals and that major obstacles, such as corruption and conflict, could be overcome.”

Did Newcastle Disease Virus Sneak Out of the Lab?
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is a highly infectious disease that impacts domestic poultry and other birds. Virulent NDV strains have been endemic in poultry throughout Asia, Africa, and some countries within South America. Current outbreaks continue to cause food safety and agricultural issue. In the 1940s, the first NDV panzootic occurred, specifically genotypes II, III, and IV. Other genotypes have continued to circulate and cause outbreaks. A recent study performed a complete genomic sequence of contemporary isolates from China, Egypt, and India. Researchers performed genetic analysis to distinguish historical isolates (the outbreak from the 1940s) from currently circulating genotypes (V, VI, VII, and XII through XVIII). Through their work, they found that isolates of genotypes II and IX (which are not normally circulating viruses in the environment) were found to be identical to the historical viruses that were isolated in the 1940s. “The low rates of change for these virulent viruses (7.05 × 10−5 and 2.05 × 10−5 per year, respectively) and the minimal genetic distances existing between these and historical viruses (0.3 to 1.2%) of the same genotypes indicate an unnatural origin.” The virulent strains isolated during the 1940s have been used in labs and research studies. Researchers noted that it is highly unlikely these viruses remained viable in the environment for over sixty years, which means its very possible (and scary…) that the source of these viral samples, taken from poultry and wild birds, may in fact be from a laboratory. So now we have to wonder…how did these specific virulent viral isolates find their way out of laboratories and into nature?

Is Open Science the Secret Weapon Against Zika and Future Pandemics?
Gene editing tools like CRISPR-Cas9 have the potential to combat diseases like HIV and malaria, but there’s also a potential dual-use for these technologies that is much more sinister. The price of laboratory equipment for some synthetic biology experiments is dwindling and many are becoming concerned about potential for misuse. Should science be left open and researchers ultimately allowed to make the call about potential dual-use or should scientific work/publications be regulated to avoid publications of research that could be used to build a biological weapon? Some are saying that the best way to combat global issues is through global cooperation and communication and thus, open-source information. Should Zika be the first in the test subjects of open science and its application in the global health security toolbox? Many have argued that if a research project is receiving public funding, it should be open sourced (including the data). Would this have helped the Ebola outbreak? “When Ebola was raging through West Africa in the summer of 2014, a group at the Broad Institute in Cambridge, Mass. published open repository sequence data for 99 Ebola genomes taken from patients in Sierra Leone’s Kenema government hospital. This open sourcing of critical scientific data was the second instance in the outbreak. A team of international researchers had initially published three genomes from patients in Guinea in April. For the next three months, no more genomic data was released to the public data repositories that had become the go-to source for scientists studying Ebola. The silence puzzled many prominent scientists. A formidable array of genomic sequencing technology was aimed squarely at the virus. Yet the data was not shared.” Since this outbreak, many have pushed more for open science, especially in the wake of a global outbreak like Zika.

The Other Side of the Spectrum – How Genetic Editing Became a National Security Threat
You may recall in February, Director of National Intelligence, James R. Clapper, stated in his World Wide Threat Assessment testimony that gene editing had become a global danger and should be considered a weapon of mass destruction. The history of genetic research has seen a burst of developments since the discovery of the double helix in 1953. CRISPR-Cas9 is the newest in the genetic engineering arsenal…and at at a fraction of the historical price. If it were only so simple as to do away with malaria by genetically modifying mosquitoes to avoid carrying the parasite. Alas, the realities are a bit darker. The truth is that genome editing of wildlife can alter entire ecosystems, not to mention the risk for accidents and negligence, which is a very real possibility. Those concerns aren’t even touching on the frightening potential for biological weapons. “Gene editing techniques could produce forms of diseases that barely resemble their naturally occurring counterparts. Such engineered pathogens could sicken or even kill hundreds of thousands of people. Armed with the proper genetic sequences, states or bioterrorists could employ genome editing to create highly virulent pathogens for use in such attacks. They could, for example, change a less dangerous, non-pathogenic strain of anthrax into a highly virulent form by altering the genome, or recreate pathogens such as the deadly smallpox virus, which was eradicated in the wild in 1980. Or they could develop specific weapons that target either individuals or even entire races: With the right manipulations, a pathogen could be made to have greater invasiveness or virulence in a target population.” So where do we go from here? With no governance of do-it-yourself facilitates, no training for the at-home gene editing experimenters, and endless debate about the dangers of gain-of-function research, what is being done? Many are saying UN Resolution 1540 should be strengthened to consider this technology and the Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) policy shouldn’t just apply to research funded by the government, but also small labs and individuals. With the notion of open science and DURC still up for debate, the stakes will only get higher as global outbreaks, like Zika, continue to burn through countries.

Why We Should Be Afraid of Yellow Fever
Angola is getting hit hard by yellow fever and the vaccine shortages only amplified the outbreak. With all eyes on Zika and a century since Rio saw its last case of yellow fever, where’s the link? Global supplies of yellow fever vaccines are pretty much depleted and BioManguinhos/FioCruz in Rio (one of four…yes four… yellow fever vaccine producers in the world) is having production problems. All available vaccines are being rushed to Angola and cases are spilling over into the DRC, Mauritania, and Kenya. Here’s more – “What most people don’t know is that there are a lot of Angolans coming every year to Brazil, and the more who arrive here unvaccinated, but have been exposed to yellow fever in Africa and may be carrying the virus, the greater the risk that they will infect Rio mosquitoes, allowing them to transmit yellow fever to residents and tourists.” Brazil is already waging a massive war against Zika. Add in yellow fever and it’ll be like adding a gallon of gasoline to a house fire. Mosquito control is imperative and now we’re paying the costs of historically lackadaisical efforts.

Zika Updates
The WHO announced that the number of Zika virus cases is dropping in Brazil. A recent study reports that dengue virus antibodies enhance Zika virus infection. Researchers suggest that pre-existing dengue immunity will enhance a Zika infection in vivo and can increase the severity of disease. Many are calling for more research to be done regarding the relationships between Zika and dengue infections. You can also find a timeline of Zika virus here. There are growing concerns regarding blood donations as Zika spreads internationally. The Canadian Blood service noted that new rules to protect against Zika transmission are putting stress on the blood supply. A new study looks at the impact of Zika and the challenges we many face due to the increasing frequency of viral outbreaks. As of April 27, 2016, there were 426 travel-associated cases in the U.S.

Rewiring Outbreak Preparedness and Response
Let’s take more of a deep-dive into why we should apply U.S. biodefense practices to managing and preparing for outbreaks. Hoyt and Hatchett emphasized why we should learn from American biodefense strategies to better fight infectious disease outbreak. “SARS was responsible for 800 deaths but cost $40 billion globally and Ebola has cost West African economies $6 billion plus an additional $4.3 billion in international contributions. Now, consider the cost of developing a vaccine. Hoyt and Hatchett point out that at the most expensive point, it can cost $1.8 billion to develop a vaccine (others argue that is it much closer to $500 million).”

Stories You May Have Missed:

  • Neurological Problems in Ebola Survivors – a recent NIH study found that nearly all Liberian Ebola survivors reported neurological symptoms following their recovery. Symptoms were noted to have persisted for over a year, including headaches, difficulty walking, overall muscle weakness, loss of memory, and depression. Hallucinations during treatment in Ebola treatment units was prevalent in 25% of patients, with 4% having persistent hallucinations at follow up.
  • Ebola in America: Epidemic of Fear – The Center for Strategic & International Studies has put together a video on the fear and U.S. response to Ebola cases in the U.S. and in West Africa. The video discusses stigma and how Ebola was experienced in the Fall of 2014.
  • Biodefense World Summit – The 2016 event will be hosted in Baltimore, MD on June 27-30, 2016. The Knowledge Foundation’s Second Annual Biodefense World Summit brings together leaders from government, academia, and industry for compelling discussions and comprehensive coverage on pathogen detection, sample prep technologies, point-of-care, and biosurveillance. Across the four-track event, attendees can expect exceptional networking opportunities in the exhibit hall, across panel discussions, and shared case studies with members of the biodefense community from technology providers to policy makers

 

Pandora Report: 11.27.2015

by spopescu, posted in News, Pandora Report

We hope you’re having a lovely holiday week and recovering from a day of full of tryptophan overload! This week we’re starting off with a look at the Government Accountability Office’s review of the BioWatch program. We’re discussing another panel review of the WHO Ebola response efforts, the role of tacit knowledge in bioweapons development, and how the Beagle Brigade is fighting bioterrorism one belly-rub at a time. Fun history fact Friday: on November 26, 1940, President Franklin Roosevelt declared the government would bar strikes “at plants under government contract to provide war materials for the US military and its allies” and on November 25, 1915, Albert Einstein published his equations on the Theory of General Relativity!

Government Accountability Office Finds BioWatch Unreliable
The BioWatch program was introduced in 2003 to perform active environmental surveillance for potential bioweapon use. The struggle has been to accurately discern between organisms that are naturally occurring and those that are being intentionally released. With several false alarms, the program has been under heavy scrutiny. Timothy M. Persons, chief scientist of the Government Accountability Office (GAO), states that authorities “need to have assurance that when the system indicates a possible attack, it’s not crying wolf. You can’t claim it works”. DHS official Jim H. Crumpacker, points out that the system is used as an early warning and there is an inherent level of uncertainty and limitation. The report (published in October but not publicly released until November 23, 2015), which you can read here, states that from 2003-2014, BioWatch made 149 mistaken detections that were “false positives”. The report says that “GAO recommends DHS not pursue upgrades or enhancements for Gen-2 until it reliably establishes the system’s current capabilities.”

Expert Review of Ebola Outbreak Response
A 19 member review panel, convened by the Harvard Global Health Institute and the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, reviewed the Ebola outbreak response as a gateway to “public debates alongside reports on outbreak response and preparedness”. Led by Dr. Peter Piot, one of the scientists to discover Ebola in 1976, the group pointed to several issues needing attention on a global scale. Findings pushed for the WHO to reorganize their disease outbreak functions and streamline processes to “avoid political pressure, build country core capacities, and ensure adequate funding”. The ten suggested reforms heavily emphasize the importance of core capacities within countries to be able to detect and respond to outbreaks. Strengthening a country’s capacity to do surveillance, response, and prevention is crucial in reducing the risk of multi-national outbreaks that spread like wildfire. The report also suggests incentives for early outbreak reporting and more science-based justifications for economic impacts like travel restrictions, etc.

Tacit Knowledge and the Bioweapons Convention
GMU Biodefense Professor, Dr. Sonia Ben Ouagrham-Gormley, takes on the August 2015 Biological Weapons Convention and the exciting inclusion of tacit knowledge in bioweapons development. Dr. Ben Ouagrham-Gormley has contributed heavily to the field of biodefense, specifically on the role that tacit knowledge plays as a key determinant of bioweapons development. In past nonproliferation efforts, tacit knowledge has been widely neglected. Tacit knowledge “consists of unarticulated skills, know-how, or practices that cannot be easily translated into words, but are essential in the success of scientific endeavors.” Simply put, it takes more than a manual or YouTube video to truly perform a scientific experiment, etc. Tacit knowledge is seen in scientists that have spent years not only learning, but experiencing the quirks and challenges of performing experiments. The lessons of failed endeavors, teachings of fellow scientists, and instincts built by years of experience, are all components in tacit knowledge. Dr. Ben Ouagrham-Gormley points to the role tacit knowledge has played in the history of failed bioweapons programs (state and non-state). While some analysts believe the advancing biotechnologies will “de-skill” the field and lower the bar for bioweapons development, Dr. Ben Ouagrham-Gormley highlights that tacit knowledge is a massive roadblock. Pointing towards the new focus on tacit knowledge, she notes that this will only help “advance key mandates of the bioweapons convention, naming the assessment of new technologies, the improvement of national implementation, and the strengthening of cooperation among member states.”

The New Line of Biodefense: Adorable Dogs

Courtesy of BarkPost
Courtesy of BarkPost

There are few times when I get to combine a love of rescue dogs and biodefense nerdom and fortunately, today is that day! The Beagle Brigade is a group of rescue beagles that have been specially trained “to sense for items used for bioterror which include contraband money, pests, and unlawful wildlife”. Even more, the Beagle Brigade is part of the USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS). They work in baggage-claim areas at international airports, wearing green jackets, to help identify any meat, animal byproducts, fruit, or vegetables that could be carrying any diseases or pests that have the potential to cause a devastating outbreak in the US. They’ve been specially trained to pick up “restricted” (fruit, vegetable, etc.) versus non-restricted items and have a 90% success rate! I think we can safely say the Beagle Brigade wins the award for “most adorable biodefense strategy”.

Genetically Engineered Mosquitoes Battle Malaria 
Recently published work shows how researchers used “a controversial method called ‘gene drive’ to ensure that an engineered mosquito would pass on its new resistance genes to nearly all of its offspring – not just half, as would normally be the case.” These “mutant mosquitoes” are engineered to resist the parasite that causes malaria infections. This particular work solves the issue that many were facing when it came to passing down resistant genes through a species. While this may mark the end of a long battle against malaria, many are pointing to the ethical and dual-use concerns of such work. The growing concern surrounds the high speed of such technological innovation and the lagging of regulatory and policy guidelines, especially regarding work in wild populations. The potential to alter an entire ecosystem has many concerned over the ramifications of such work. The research team is currently working to prepare mosquitoes for field tests, however they are non-native mosquitoes.

Stories You May Have Missed:

  • Stories From A Biodefense PhD Student- GMU Biodefense PhD student, Craig Wiener, discusses his journey from master’s student to PhD candidate. Craig explains what sparked his interest in not only biodefense, but GMU’s program, and how that’s translated into real-world experiences. “Mason has provided me the depth and breadth of knowledge that I needed to converse with senior policymakers, technologists, and scientists,” he says. “It bridged the gap between science and policy so I could be respected in both worlds because I knew what I was talking about.”
  • East Bronx Legionnaires’ Outbreak Traced to Psychiatric Center–  The New York City Health Department announced that the cooling tower at  the Bronx Psychiatric Centre was the likely source of the break that hit East Bronx earlier this fall. Samples from four cases matched those taken from the water tower. Remediation and disinfection is being performed on the water tower.
  • Liberia Reports Death of Boy – A boy who was part of the family cluster of Ebola cases in Liberia, has died of the disease. The 15-year-old boy was one of the three confirmed cases reported on November 20th, which marked the end of the Ebola-free period for Liberia since September 3rd. There are currently 153 contacts and 25 healthcare workers being monitored.

Pandora Report: 11.13.2015

by spopescu, posted in Pandora Report

Given the auspicious nature of Friday, the 13th, how about we start the Easy-Bake Oven version of bioreactors? (insert evil genius laugh). Our report this week is rich in biosafety, GMU Open Houses, and updates on global outbreaks. Fun History Fact Friday – this week in 1989, the Berlin Wall came down! Before we venture down the rabbit hole, don’t forget to get your flu shot before the 2015/2016 influenza season hits too hard!

DIY Bioengineering 
If you’re in search of the perfect holiday gift for your favorite biodefense/bioengineer, you can thank the creators of Amino (personally, I think calling it the Easy-Bake Oven Bioreactor is just so much more fun). The kit starts at $700 and comes with all the essentials for your “recipe” (main bacterial culture, DNA, pipettes, incubators, agar plates and various sensors for monitoring microbial growth). Did I mention it comes in a nice color-coded, pleasing-to-the-eye plywood dashboard? MIT graduate, Julie Legault, is the master genius behind Amino, and uses the “apps” (step-by-step guides) to help make even the most science adverse individual capable of making DNA products. Liz Stinson points out that “they walk users through how to insert the DNA into untransformed bacteria cells, and how to incubate, grow, and maintain the altered microorganisms”. Just make sure your new gift comes with some information on dual-use research of concern and avoids any select agents…

Master’s Open House 
Make sure to swing by our GMU Master’s Open House on Wednesday, November 18th at 6:30pm to learn about all our different programs! Good news – you can virtually attend via this link and even ask questions live! We’ll be talking biodefense and all the ways you can use our MS degree (online or in person!). Whether its fighting food safety issues, pandemic influenza, or zombies, we’re passionately trying to make the world of global health security stronger and more diverse!

Biological Research: Rethink Biosafety 
“Biology must move forward on safety and security. Let’s not reinvent the wheel, but learn from those doing safety better.” Tim Trevan’s comments echo the sentiments of many within the biosecurity field. The anthrax mishaps at Dugway and the CDC BSL-3 lab in Atlanta compound a growing concern over the handling of select agents and the lab safety practices and processes that seem to be failing. Trevan poses the question, “what are the prospects for managing the more intractable risks globally if measures to ensure the safe handling of dangerous pathogens are failing at the best-equipped facilities in the country with the most advanced biotechnology in the world?” In his words, Trevan has hit the nail on the head and summarized the realities of lab safety culture. So what’s to be done? Trevan makes the unexpected recommendation of  using nuclear security experts to advise on biosafety and biosecurity. This strategy utilizes a practice that is also common in healthcare – a culture of safety. By focussing on the prevention of failure, instead of maximizing output, safety becomes an engrained practice in all levels of an organization, transforming it into a “high-reliability organization” (HRO). By using examples within industries like offshore oil drilling, airlines, etc., Trevan points to the growing biotech capabilities that make biosecurity that much more imperative. In healthcare, I’ve seen organizations truly transform their practices by moving to a culture of safety (and utilizing “just culture” when it comes to patient safety) and while it’s not a wholly easy process, the foundations are already present in the existing teachings of patient care. Labs have the training and knowledge for safety, but as Trevan points out, it’s time to bring in those with the expertise to help move towards a culture of safety.

Screen Shot 2015-11-12 at 9.56.04 AM
Courtesy of HDOH

Dengue Fever Outbreak in Hawaii 
If you’re considering a winter retreat to Hawaii, make sure to grab some bug spray. Hawaii Island is currently experiencing a Dengue outbreak that has just reached 33 cases. Dengue is not endemic to Hawaii and while travelers have imported cases from time to time, this is marks the first big cluster of locally-acquired cases since 2011. The Hawaii Department of Health (HDOH) continues investigations and reports (as of 11/11)  25 Hawaii Island residents and 8 visitors have been laboratory confirmed with dengue fever. The HDOH has provided maps related to exposure areas to help people avoid high-risk locations or at least use preventative measures. If you’re traveling to Hawaii Island or an area where dengue is endemic, make sure to take steps to reduce the risk of mosquito bites and the potential for transmission!

Ebola Update
Guinea has reported no new cases in the last week. While they’re still on high alert after the cases surrounding a family, they are hopeful. Liberia and Sierra Leone have hit their 90-day enhanced surveillance period, meaning they have no new cases and are now working towards the WHO’s second objective (managing and responding to residual risks). Pauline Cafferkey has made a full recovery after her hospitalizations due to post-Ebola recovery complications. Researchers at Columbia University’s Mailman School of Public Health used a new statistical model to map the outbreak. Results will be published in the Journal of Royal Society Interface, which shows the development of the outbreak and role early detection and response plays.

Stories You May Have Missed: 

  • Joint Services Mask Leakage Tester (JSMLT) Contract – the DoD has announced that Air Techniques International, Inc. has been awarded a contract regarding the maintenance of the JSMLT. The JSMLT does quality control and ensures proper fitting (portably) on CBRN protective masks.
  • H7N9 Cases in China Rise– China has confirmed two more cases that occurred in October, bringing the total case count to four. Many in public health are noting that these cases bring about a fourth wave of infections (starting in October). The two new cases were a a 62-year-old woman from Shengzhou and a 51-year-old farmer from Hangzhou.
  • Boosting Biosecurity in Nigeria & Kenya– The Institute of Human Virology at the University of Maryland have announced two grants to help build biosecurity in Nigeria and Kenya. The first grant of $13 million will go to strengthen laboratory infrastructure in Kenya, and the second of $10 million will help those in Nigeria quickly detect and respond to emerging infectious diseases.

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Arthropods, Pathogens, and Bioterrorism

by juliadhomstad, posted in News

By Chris Healey

Mosquitos are responsible for a chickungunya fever outbreak in the Caribbean several hundred miles off the United States coastline. That outbreak is an addition to the expanding role arthropods play in the spread of illness.

Many arthropods are erroneously classified as insects. While mosquitos, lice, and fleas are indeed insects with six legs, ticks have eight legs and are technically arachnids. The term arthropod is an overarching classification encompassing mosquitos, fleas, and ticks – all common disease vectors. Insects are arthropods, but not all arthropods are insects.

Arthropods spread several of the world’s most significant diseases. Notable among them are Lyme disease, typhus, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, West Nile virus, and, most significantly, malaria. Of the 45 select agents designated by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 12 are transmitted by arthropods.

Diseases spread by arthropods have influenced some of the greatest conflicts in history. More French soldiers are suspected to have died from louse-borne typhus than actual combat during Napoleon’s ill-fated 1812 invasion of Russia. Staggering mortality among the French army forced Napoleon to renounce Moscow and retreat back to France. During WWII, mosquito-borne malaria was a serious health threat to U.S troops throughout campaigns in the South Pacific.

Several tick-borne bacterial illnesses have been endemic to North America since antiquity, including Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. In recent years, mosquito-borne viruses have made their way across U.S. borders. The introduction of West Nile virus in 1999 and a 2005 dengue hemorrhagic fever outbreak in Texas have solidified emerging and foreign arthropod-borne diseases as threats to U.S. public health.

Arthropods can also serve to carry out bioterrorism. Terrorists could utilize arthropods to execute clandestine bioterror attacks through exploitation of feeding behavior. Inoculation of arthropods with the desired agent and subsequent release into unsuspecting populations could spread illness during, or shortly after, blood meals. Although possible, that scenario is unlikely due to the difficulty associated with production and maintenance of pathogen-inoculated arthropods.

A more likely bioterrorism scenario involves malevolent forces utilizing more passive means of compromising U.S. health. North America has many indigenous mosquito species – several of which can spread pathogens found in other parts of the world, such as Rift Valley Fever in Africa. Introduction of any disease capable of spread and maintenance by indigenous arthropods is a significant public health threat. Some unsubstantiated theories suggest West Nile virus was intentionally introduced to the U.S. in this way. Possibilities of an arthropod-facilitated attack has placed a heavy burden on keeping undesirable pathogens out of the country.

There are steps everyone can take to reduce their risk of arthropod-borne diseases. Mosquito control methods, such as elimination of outdoor untreated stagnant water sources, should be practiced regularly. Also, mosquito repellent, in addition to long-sleeved shirts and pants covering the ankles, should be worn whenever going outdoors.

Similar measures can be taken to prevent tick bites – wear repellent, tuck pants into socks or boots, shower after returning indoors, and perform tick checks daily.